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篇1

篇2

關(guān)鍵詞: 語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)英語(yǔ)聽(tīng)力意義

一、前言

在英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中,聽(tīng)力作為一種基本語(yǔ)言技能越來(lái)越受到英語(yǔ)教師的重視。然而,聽(tīng)力理解對(duì)許多學(xué)生來(lái)說(shuō)是一個(gè)頗為困難的環(huán)節(jié)。究其原因,學(xué)習(xí)者往往只注重語(yǔ)音、詞匯、語(yǔ)法等語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的提高,而忽略了結(jié)合語(yǔ)境因素對(duì)語(yǔ)言材料的推理。根據(jù)信息處理原則,聽(tīng)力理解是受話者有目的地運(yùn)用儲(chǔ)存在大腦里的原有信息,對(duì)收到的信息進(jìn)行選擇、整理加工從而獲得新信息,語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)信息作為語(yǔ)篇信息流的起點(diǎn)引出新信息,新信息繼而又轉(zhuǎn)化為后來(lái)語(yǔ)篇中的預(yù)設(shè)信息。

二、語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)的概念

語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)的研究開(kāi)始于語(yǔ)義預(yù)設(shè)的研究,由于語(yǔ)義預(yù)設(shè)自身概念的矛盾特點(diǎn)促使越來(lái)越多的學(xué)者從其他視角考慮語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè),不再把預(yù)設(shè)簡(jiǎn)單地認(rèn)為是真值預(yù)設(shè)或邏輯預(yù)設(shè);而是加入語(yǔ)境的知識(shí),認(rèn)為是話語(yǔ)恰當(dāng)性的條件?！坝袝r(shí)人們說(shuō)一個(gè)命題預(yù)設(shè)另一個(gè)命題,有時(shí)人們說(shuō)一句語(yǔ)句(在它的表層形式上)預(yù)設(shè)一個(gè)命題,有時(shí)人們說(shuō)一個(gè)人在說(shuō)一個(gè)語(yǔ)句的時(shí)候預(yù)設(shè)了某些東西。語(yǔ)言學(xué)家偶爾也說(shuō)一個(gè)詞預(yù)設(shè)了一個(gè)命題”。[1]邏輯學(xué)家、語(yǔ)言學(xué)家們發(fā)現(xiàn),越是深入研究預(yù)設(shè)理論就越離不開(kāi)語(yǔ)境的分析,語(yǔ)言外的因素成為影響預(yù)設(shè)有效傳達(dá)的關(guān)鍵。促使學(xué)者們拋開(kāi)原有的真值條件的語(yǔ)義預(yù)設(shè),而更加注重把預(yù)設(shè)作為一種語(yǔ)用推理去研究。當(dāng)然這種趨勢(shì)也是由于語(yǔ)義預(yù)設(shè)在概念問(wèn)題上尚未清晰,預(yù)設(shè)理論上的不可消除性與預(yù)設(shè)事實(shí)上的可消除性矛盾促使語(yǔ)言學(xué)家和邏輯學(xué)家從語(yǔ)境的范疇重新審視預(yù)設(shè)的語(yǔ)用功能。

由于語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)研究時(shí)間尚短,一些基本問(wèn)題尚在探索中,包括各種理論的融合還有待完善,所以目前還沒(méi)有一個(gè)普遍接受的定義,根據(jù)不同學(xué)者知識(shí)背景,定義不盡相同。有的理解較寬泛,有的理解較狹窄,筆者認(rèn)為歸結(jié)起來(lái)有兩種主要的方式。

第一種從言語(yǔ)交際行為出發(fā),把有效言語(yǔ)交際行為作為預(yù)設(shè)必須滿足的條件。認(rèn)為預(yù)設(shè)不能單獨(dú)構(gòu)成話語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)句意義,只是為運(yùn)用話語(yǔ)創(chuàng)造基礎(chǔ),使言語(yǔ)活動(dòng)能達(dá)到交際的目的。如黃華新教授和陳宗明教授認(rèn)為,“語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)可以一般地表述為:一個(gè)語(yǔ)句S預(yù)設(shè)命題P(或P是S的預(yù)設(shè)),當(dāng)且僅當(dāng),使得語(yǔ)句S具有恰當(dāng)性”。當(dāng)然,在運(yùn)用語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)規(guī)則中,“除了滿足條件以外還有排除條件。也就是說(shuō),一個(gè)語(yǔ)句S預(yù)設(shè)命題P,如果同說(shuō)話人遵守合作原則或語(yǔ)境因素相矛盾,則命題P被取消”。

另一種理解是從言語(yǔ)交際功能出發(fā),把語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)看作是實(shí)際雙方所共有的背景知識(shí),認(rèn)為自然語(yǔ)言就是要在一定語(yǔ)境中起到成功交際的作用,即說(shuō)話人說(shuō)出話語(yǔ),或聽(tīng)話人理解話語(yǔ)都要加入語(yǔ)境的某些因素。

三、語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)的特征

(一)語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)具有共識(shí)性

人類社會(huì)的復(fù)雜性是與人腦的高度發(fā)展分不開(kāi)的,而思維的表達(dá)大部分是通過(guò)人類的言語(yǔ)表達(dá)的,這就造成了人類言語(yǔ)在交際過(guò)程中的復(fù)雜性。

長(zhǎng)期的社會(huì)生活使人們以最少信息量傳達(dá)最大意思成為共識(shí),在交際中往往省略雙方已知的信息,或者說(shuō)話者認(rèn)為聽(tīng)話者已知的共同背景知識(shí),而這部分省略的信息就是語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)的共識(shí)性。預(yù)設(shè)的共識(shí)性是指說(shuō)話雙方的共同知道的事物,即第三者如不了解預(yù)設(shè)而只依靠語(yǔ)境,則不一定能真正理解說(shuō)話雙方對(duì)話內(nèi)容。

例:關(guān)于小李、小王選派出國(guó)的對(duì)話。

A:我看,這次出國(guó)的名額很難落到小李的頭上。

B:噢,我也有同感,小王各方面條件都優(yōu)于小李,應(yīng)該是小王。

A:沒(méi)錯(cuò)!

在以上兩者的對(duì)話中,顯而易見(jiàn)他們的交際取得成功,各自表達(dá)了自己的想法,并且二者在對(duì)話中都已明確雙方的共同知識(shí)背景。即單位選派出國(guó)人選在小李與小王二者之間,不是小李就是小王,不會(huì)有其他人出現(xiàn)。并且當(dāng)A說(shuō)小李難選上時(shí),邏輯必然地推出小王能選上。

(二)語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)具有主觀性

語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)具有主觀性,是指說(shuō)話者帶有斷言性質(zhì)的語(yǔ)境假設(shè),本身并不具備必然的真實(shí)性或正確性。在言語(yǔ)交際前,雙方并不知道對(duì)方各自的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)的背景知識(shí)范圍,而只能是在不斷深入的交流中,通過(guò)自己的判斷和雙方交際過(guò)程中相互質(zhì)證和認(rèn)證的過(guò)程中實(shí)現(xiàn),但有時(shí)這種證實(shí)又不能始終保持正確。此時(shí)就需要雙方修正各自的背景知識(shí)范圍,達(dá)到最大程度上的同構(gòu)。

例如:“今天的《參考消息》要下午送來(lái),爺爺只好出去遛彎了?！闭f(shuō)話者在說(shuō)出這一命題時(shí),是自己主觀上認(rèn)為聽(tīng)話者能夠理解“爺爺每天上午要看《參考消息》”的,比如說(shuō)話者面對(duì)的聽(tīng)者是同住一起的姐姐或是奶奶,那么這樣的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)就能夠被聽(tīng)話者所理解,并將進(jìn)一步運(yùn)用到下一步的交際中。但是如果面對(duì)的聽(tīng)話者不是自己的家人而是送報(bào)紙的郵遞員,郵遞員也許就不會(huì)有與其家人一樣的背景知識(shí),僅僅可能會(huì)認(rèn)為每天這家的老人只是取報(bào)紙而已,報(bào)紙有可能是為這家里其他人定的,比如爸爸。可見(jiàn),在說(shuō)話者說(shuō)出這一預(yù)設(shè)時(shí),聽(tīng)話者并不一定能夠領(lǐng)會(huì),是說(shuō)話者自己主觀上斷定的,能否能成為交際中合適的預(yù)設(shè)還要等聽(tīng)話者的回應(yīng)才能作出。

(三)語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)具有隱蔽性

語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)具有隱蔽性,是指語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)并不是從字面意思就可以得到的,是隱含在語(yǔ)句中的,需要聽(tīng)話者自己去挖掘。如果不留神就會(huì)把預(yù)設(shè)的“斷言”看作是真實(shí)的而加以接受,就會(huì)陷于復(fù)雜問(wèn)句中,置自己于被動(dòng)地位。復(fù)雜問(wèn)句的本質(zhì)是語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)的隱蔽性,是言語(yǔ)交際的隱含前提。例如對(duì)一名檢察官來(lái)說(shuō),當(dāng)他在詢問(wèn)犯罪嫌疑人是否有作案嫌疑時(shí),他可能會(huì)這樣說(shuō):“你是幾點(diǎn)離開(kāi)案發(fā)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)的?”在這種情況下,無(wú)論犯罪嫌疑如何回答,都已承認(rèn)到過(guò)案發(fā)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)。當(dāng)然,在我國(guó)社會(huì)主義法治建設(shè)逐漸完善的今天,這樣帶有誘導(dǎo)式的審訊方式已經(jīng)不存在

了,但作為一種有效交際的方式在法律界的其他領(lǐng)域,語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)還是有著它的生命力的。

四、語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)與英語(yǔ)聽(tīng)力

預(yù)設(shè)對(duì)語(yǔ)境因素十分敏感,并且與說(shuō)話人和其他語(yǔ)言外因素有密切的關(guān)系。有時(shí)說(shuō)話人會(huì)根據(jù)語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)在具體語(yǔ)境中的體現(xiàn)方式和隱含意義,將預(yù)設(shè)進(jìn)行改變,從而實(shí)現(xiàn)自己的語(yǔ)用意圖。也就是說(shuō),在具體的語(yǔ)言環(huán)境中,一個(gè)話語(yǔ)可能有多個(gè)預(yù)設(shè),一個(gè)預(yù)設(shè)也可能有多重含義,即預(yù)設(shè)的“語(yǔ)境多維性”。

在有些情況下,語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)是通過(guò)明確的標(biāo)示,如預(yù)設(shè)的觸發(fā)語(yǔ)(trigger)來(lái)表示出來(lái)的。但在有些情況下,語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)則表現(xiàn)得不那么明顯,這就需要學(xué)生運(yùn)用語(yǔ)用推理推導(dǎo)出話語(yǔ)中隱含的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè),從而正確理解會(huì)話含義。下面,筆者通過(guò)實(shí)例,分析測(cè)試者如何在聽(tīng)力測(cè)試中運(yùn)用語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)來(lái)考查受試者的語(yǔ)篇理解能力。

(一)對(duì)話理解

1.推斷說(shuō)話者之間的關(guān)系

W:This is the third time you’ve been late this week,Robert,you’ll have to do better than that,or I might find it necessary to let you go.

M:It won’t happen again,I assure you.

Q:Who spoke to Robert?

通過(guò)這道題,我們了解到女士說(shuō)的Robert這個(gè)星期已經(jīng)是第三次遲到了,還有像“l(fā)et go”這樣的信息。通常是老板解雇雇員,這是本題所蘊(yùn)含的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)。因此,通過(guò)這一預(yù)設(shè)我們不難判斷出,說(shuō)話雙方的關(guān)系是老板與雇員之間的關(guān)系。

2.推斷引申含義

M:The light in the dining room is a little too bright,don’t you think so?

W:It’s perfect for a football stadium.

Q:What does the woman mean?

足球場(chǎng)必須燈光通明,而西方餐廳流行幽暗朦朧的燈光是本題的這一具體語(yǔ)境的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)。在此預(yù)設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行分析推理,就可以得出那位女士說(shuō)的話是同意先生的意見(jiàn)的。

(二)短文填空

短文主要是考查考生對(duì)文章達(dá)意、中心思想、重要事件的理解和領(lǐng)會(huì),以及根據(jù)所獲得的相關(guān)信息對(duì)文中的某些細(xì)節(jié)作出聯(lián)想、判斷,也有就短文中的某一事實(shí)和任務(wù)進(jìn)行提問(wèn)的題目。在聽(tīng)力短文測(cè)試中,考生不要期望字字句句都聽(tīng)得真切,抓住短文中最能反映主旨大意和主題的關(guān)鍵詞匯或短語(yǔ)分析出短文的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè),然后進(jìn)行成功推斷才是重要的聽(tīng)力策略。

五、結(jié)語(yǔ)

語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)作為交際雙方共有的背景知識(shí),對(duì)言語(yǔ)信息傳遞起著不容忽視的作用。聽(tīng)者只有與發(fā)話者建構(gòu)同一預(yù)設(shè)信息,才能達(dá)到理解話語(yǔ)的目的。在英語(yǔ)聽(tīng)力教學(xué)中,教師要有意識(shí)地講授一些相關(guān)的預(yù)設(shè)知識(shí),引導(dǎo)學(xué)生根據(jù)聽(tīng)力文字材料和答案選項(xiàng)等線索,從中發(fā)現(xiàn)一些背景預(yù)設(shè)信息,以縮小談話者的話題范圍,最后推斷出聽(tīng)話人所需的信息。

參考文獻(xiàn):

[1]中國(guó)人民大學(xué)哲學(xué)系邏輯教研室.邏輯學(xué).北京:中國(guó)人民大學(xué)出版社,2003:79-84.

[2]鄒崇理.邏輯.語(yǔ)言與信息.北京:人民出版社,2002:76-78.

[3]黃華新,陳宗明.描述語(yǔ)用學(xué).長(zhǎng)春:吉林人民出版社,2005:135.

[4]熊學(xué)亮.語(yǔ)言學(xué)新解.上海:復(fù)旦大學(xué)出版社,2003:15-18.

[5]張春泉.語(yǔ)用邏輯芻議.浙江社會(huì)科學(xué).2004.5:148.

[6]何向東,袁正校.交際意圖――語(yǔ)用推理的目標(biāo).自然辯證法研究增刊.2000.6:67.

篇3

到環(huán)境稍微獨(dú)特有新意的飯店，很自然地都會(huì)拿出手機(jī)先拍上一番，每上一道菜，先不動(dòng)筷子，都先攝像頭“吃”個(gè)飽。

旅行景區(qū)更是不用說(shuō)了，不知道有多少人是真正地聽(tīng)導(dǎo)游解說(shuō)，多少人是真的用自己的內(nèi)眼去欣賞，因?yàn)閹缀跄芸吹揭凰氖謾C(jī)攝像抵著那些古色古香的景與物。

其實(shí)不用說(shuō)遠(yuǎn)的，就單單是在家附近的公園，每逢有藍(lán)天白云的天氣，碰上繁花掛滿枝葉，就會(huì)讓路過(guò)的行人，游人停下腳步，好好地拍攝一番。

手機(jī)的攝像功能越來(lái)越高端，只要能調(diào)好角度，選好景色，光線，加上手機(jī)自帶的美顏功能，基本上都能拍出不錯(cuò)的效果。

之前也見(jiàn)過(guò)一些有專業(yè)攝影裝備的人，長(zhǎng)槍短炮地對(duì)著一朵花，一片葉，我不知道他們拍出來(lái)的效果是什么樣的，不過(guò)大多人也是一種興趣吧。

今天去跑步的時(shí)候，看到一位大叔在一片花前拍照，細(xì)看才發(fā)現(xiàn)，他是以花為底，實(shí)則拍的是花的前方的一座古剎，不用想就知道肯定很美。

篇4

本片中的官方宣傳海報(bào)中，有一個(gè)穿著紅衣服的小女孩，這在一個(gè)黑白電影中顯得尤為特別，可見(jiàn)作者對(duì)于這個(gè)色彩應(yīng)用的重視?，F(xiàn)代電影越來(lái)越注重色彩的應(yīng)用，色彩不僅僅是電影語(yǔ)言的基本構(gòu)成原元素，也更加是一種藝術(shù)手法，色彩的運(yùn)用不僅僅是對(duì)生活的本色的還原，更是多層次的以及有深度的呈現(xiàn)，《辛德勒名單》是一部黑白片，除了黑白色彩的強(qiáng)烈反差，本片的色調(diào)相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)較為暗淡，這也為整部片子奠定了一個(gè)陰暗、悲愴的情感基調(diào)，與電影的主題和內(nèi)容結(jié)合緊密，斯皮爾伯格在拍攝這部電影的時(shí)候曾經(jīng)說(shuō)，他除了黑白色別無(wú)選擇，盡管本片的色調(diào)是黑白為主的冷色系，但導(dǎo)演還是巧妙地安排了清涼和明朗的顏色，就是那個(gè)在大屠殺之前穿著血色裙子的小女孩，在黑白色為主的電影中，那個(gè)紅色顯得那么的美麗和鮮艷甚至刺眼，足夠引起觀眾的重視和思考，紅色裙子的設(shè)定分別在是片頭和片尾部分，到第二次出現(xiàn)的時(shí)候，穿紅色裙子的孩子躺在了堆積如山的尸體上，并瞬間被無(wú)盡的灰暗所吞噬，顯然她并沒(méi)有走進(jìn)辛德勒的名單里。這也是本片色彩運(yùn)用的亮點(diǎn)，它的暗示和象征意義非常明顯，就是讓觀眾去思考和深思，紅色代表著生機(jī)和活力，被無(wú)盡的黑暗吞噬也象征著人類歷史上那段慘無(wú)人道的歷史，緊扣本片的主題，象征著泯滅人性的德國(guó)納粹對(duì)于人類生存和希望的毀滅，這種明顯的暗示所產(chǎn)生的視覺(jué)和心理的沖擊力是巨大的，而且也非常容易理解，是導(dǎo)演獨(dú)具匠心的色彩安排，也是本片色彩藝術(shù)的重要體現(xiàn)。值得一提的是，本片的片尾部分是用彩色畫(huà)面拍攝的，特別是很多被奧斯卡救下來(lái)的猶太人的后人紛紛來(lái)到這里紀(jì)念他們的救命恩人，一個(gè)個(gè)的小石子以及鮮艷的花兒，都表達(dá)著人們濃濃的情意，結(jié)局部分的場(chǎng)景是在一個(gè)山丘上，整體的拍攝手法是采用高調(diào)攝影，色彩相對(duì)柔和、輕快，這里的色彩運(yùn)用體現(xiàn)著導(dǎo)演對(duì)于和平和美好的贊美，也對(duì)于觀眾有一定的撫慰作用，結(jié)局的美好也象征著電影“善”主題的回歸。

二、電影音樂(lè)欣賞

合理的電影音樂(lè)對(duì)于電影劇情的推動(dòng)、情感表達(dá)有著非常重要的作用。音樂(lè)鑒賞也是電影欣賞設(shè)計(jì)的重要環(huán)節(jié)，那些或激情、或舒緩、或輕快的音樂(lè)真實(shí)而細(xì)膩地表現(xiàn)了電影的情感，也體現(xiàn)著一個(gè)導(dǎo)演內(nèi)心世界的主觀感受。影片中有一幅場(chǎng)景是，為了避免尸體腐爛引起的瘟疫以及掩蓋罪證，納粹人開(kāi)始將堆積如山的尸體進(jìn)行焚燒，高大的煙囪冒著濃濃的黑煙，這個(gè)時(shí)候舒緩的古典音樂(lè)響起，并配合男女聲的伴唱充分地融合，像是一聲聲微弱的哭訴直擊觀眾的心靈，這個(gè)時(shí)候的音樂(lè)與畫(huà)面的結(jié)合恐怕只能用熨帖兩個(gè)字來(lái)形容了，正是音樂(lè)與畫(huà)面的這種完美貼合，將影片的主題發(fā)揮到了極致。片中對(duì)于音樂(lè)的運(yùn)用并不刻意強(qiáng)調(diào)調(diào)動(dòng)觀眾的情感，更加是一種平和的自然的描述，是隨著情節(jié)的展開(kāi)一氣呵成的，甚至通篇來(lái)看，幾乎都是非常柔和的抒情方式，好像是一個(gè)人在平靜地講故事，而不是有意帶動(dòng)觀眾的情緒，這大概是對(duì)于音樂(lè)運(yùn)用的最高境界了。也說(shuō)明了斯皮爾伯格對(duì)于電影藝術(shù)的獨(dú)特見(jiàn)解，音樂(lè)自然運(yùn)用也給了觀眾足夠的想象空間，平和的電影音樂(lè)不會(huì)干擾觀眾對(duì)電影的理解和判斷，反而更加能夠觸發(fā)觀眾的情感共鳴，更加有助于觀眾去思考和理解電影所要傳達(dá)的深刻的思想內(nèi)涵。

三、電影的敘事風(fēng)格

本片作為一部文藝電影，在全球獲得了3.21億美元的票房實(shí)屬難得，這與本片的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)有著非常重要的關(guān)系。很多的文藝電影相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)比較枯燥，導(dǎo)演過(guò)多地強(qiáng)調(diào)電影的文藝性而忽視了故事性，非常影響觀眾的觀影體驗(yàn)，畢竟電影的根本目的是來(lái)講故事的，而電影的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)和風(fēng)格對(duì)于電影敘事有著直接的關(guān)系。本片將當(dāng)時(shí)重大的歷史事件濃縮到了一個(gè)人的命運(yùn)當(dāng)中。也就是說(shuō)電影是有著兩條敘事線索的，一個(gè)是主角本身，另一個(gè)是歷史背景。《辛德勒名單》是歷史紀(jì)實(shí)電影，本身就屬于非常嚴(yán)肅的歷史題材，因此本片主要的敘事風(fēng)格和技巧體現(xiàn)在以人物為主線的敘事過(guò)程中，通過(guò)人物本身的經(jīng)歷、情感真實(shí)地表現(xiàn)出一個(gè)完整的故事，并讓觀眾去感受這個(gè)故事，是本片敘事結(jié)構(gòu)的主要特點(diǎn)。從理論上分析，本片的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)是采用一個(gè)個(gè)片段的動(dòng)作關(guān)系和時(shí)間關(guān)系的組合，每個(gè)自然的片段之間并沒(méi)有直接的因果關(guān)系，這既是歷史紀(jì)實(shí)電影的特點(diǎn)，也是本片想要刻意強(qiáng)調(diào)的，即它不再是一部電影，而是一段段真實(shí)歷史的再現(xiàn)，讓觀眾在觀影過(guò)程中產(chǎn)生強(qiáng)烈的真實(shí)感和代入感，比如對(duì)于集中營(yíng)的描寫(xiě)顯得非常散亂，表面上看似隨意穿來(lái)街頭的槍殺、焚尸等情節(jié)的設(shè)定，實(shí)際上是有目的的組織和安排，與本片直線型的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)有著很好的輔助作用。盡管這種自然客觀的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)和風(fēng)格并無(wú)太多技巧而言，但正是由于歷史中荒誕、諷刺、矛盾的現(xiàn)實(shí)，才讓本片的故事富有生機(jī)。例如德國(guó)人接受了猶太工程師的意見(jiàn)以后直接將其槍殺，德國(guó)上尉殺人如麻卻每每打不出子彈，火車(chē)錯(cuò)誤地開(kāi)進(jìn)了奧斯維辛集中營(yíng)，這些片段的設(shè)置情節(jié)發(fā)展所必須的，并非是毫無(wú)組織的散亂的歷史片段，始終是圍繞影片的主題來(lái)開(kāi)展的。每一個(gè)歷史片段的設(shè)置都與情節(jié)有著深刻的聯(lián)系，或者其內(nèi)在本身就是敘事的重要環(huán)節(jié)，比如片尾部分猶太人走向了地平線時(shí)，象征著內(nèi)在意義上的自由和新生。另外本片的敘事風(fēng)格也在其鏡頭語(yǔ)言中有所體現(xiàn)，為了真實(shí)還原歷史場(chǎng)景，本片大量的在波蘭實(shí)地取景，甚至歷史的場(chǎng)景和片段都是真實(shí)的畫(huà)面，以此來(lái)表現(xiàn)那個(gè)動(dòng)蕩年代的真實(shí)情況。

四、結(jié)語(yǔ)

篇5

[Key words]: Euphemism， application， social influence， positive， negative

【摘 要】 語(yǔ)言交際是人類以維系社會(huì)關(guān)系的重要手段，因而人們?cè)诮浑H中通常避免使用引起雙方不快從而損害雙方關(guān)系的語(yǔ)言，而是采取迂回曲折的方法來(lái)表達(dá)思想，交流信息，它不僅是種語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象，而且是社會(huì)現(xiàn)象和文化現(xiàn)象。委婉語(yǔ)言體現(xiàn)了相應(yīng)的社會(huì)文化傳統(tǒng)。本文主要闡述了英語(yǔ)委婉語(yǔ)的構(gòu)成方法以及它的社會(huì)影響，并著重從修辭手段，語(yǔ)義手段，構(gòu)詞手段及語(yǔ)法手段對(duì)委婉語(yǔ)言作了較全面的分析，并對(duì)委婉語(yǔ)在交際中的語(yǔ)用功能和表達(dá)方式做了一些探討，從委婉語(yǔ)的“避諱”功能，“禮貌”功能和“掩飾”功能三個(gè)方面探討了委婉語(yǔ)在社會(huì)生活中的運(yùn)用，了解委婉語(yǔ)在運(yùn)用中的積極作用和消極作用， 有助于我們更深入的了解英語(yǔ)國(guó)家人們的思維方式、社會(huì)價(jià)值觀、道德觀以及文化風(fēng)俗，對(duì)于提高自身言語(yǔ)交際功能是十分必要的。

【關(guān)鍵詞】 委婉語(yǔ)； 運(yùn)用； 社會(huì)影響; 積極；消極

1. Introduction

Euphemism is originally from Greek， meaning， “speak with gook words”. “eu” means “well or sounding well”; “pheme” means “speech”. Its definition in Oxford English Dictionary is “(example of the) use of pleasant， mild， or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”[1]

The appearance of euphemism is based on two reasons: one aims to take the place of “taboo”. When giving up a taboo word， people will find another new one to take the place of it， which creates a euphemism. The other aims to avoid offensiveness during the communication. It is a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is described or referred to by a milder term.

In English language， euphemism is widely used in the daily communications. In order to achieve the aim of “taboo”， it is used to avoid the unpleasant thing; in order to achieve the aim of “politeness”， it is used to avoid the inelegant things[2]， which are the two social psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is one of the important parts of figure of speech. It is not only a linguistic phenomenon， but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. Euphemism in use differs from person to person， from profession to profession， even from class to class[3] ， That’s why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of English culture. To grasp the English euphemism can not only help us open our eyes， but strengthen our ability of reading comprehension. This paper aims to discuss the application of euphemism in English and to make acknowledge of its social influence， which could help us use euphemism in a correct way.

2. Ways to express euphemism

2.1. Figure of speech

2.1.1. Metonymy.

That is to use the general words to take the place of the concrete words. “Passed away” which refers to “dead” belongs to metonymy. It can be pided into the following forms: 1) to use the container to take the place of the things in the container. For example: “to be fond of the bottle” is a euphemism for “l(fā)iking to drink”. 2) To use the entirety instead of the part. For example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “l(fā)imb” refers to “l(fā)eg”. For some special occasions， the part can be used instead of the entirety. In Australian English “an old hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner”. 3) To use the tools to take the place of the objects. For example， “pick” is a tool of prying the lock. It can refer to “thief”. 4) To use raw materials to take the place of finished products. For instance， “poppy” is a kind of flower， but it also refers to “opium”. 5) To use characteristics to take the place of objects. For example， “hellow” is a greeting word， and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) To use proper words to replace the objects. For example， “napoleon” is a French golden coin on which there is Napoleon’s head portrait. “Borstal” is a name of countryside in Kent in Britain. It can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”.

Sometimes， some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words; people gradually forget their euphemistic identities. They are not used in terms of euphemisms but have their own independent meanings. For instance， take above-mentioned “poppy”， now if you look up this word in the dictionary， you can find the meaning of “opium”， it has lost its euphemistic function. And， if you do not know the background， you can not know the meaning of “Napoleon” and “Borstal”. Therefore， we can see the importance of knowing the background of English culture. It can help you a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemism and make good use of it.

2.1.2. Metaphor

To use metaphor can easily avoid the offensive things. For example， wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law， which， though conducted by rules， does not meddle unduly with a gentleman’s private affairs. (O. Henry， The Cop and the Anthem) “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”[4]， Many euphemisms for “death” were created by way of metaphor， such as going to his long home， to be home and free， to go to sleep， to sleep the long (or eternal， never-ending) sleep， to rest in peace， to be at rest， to go to Heaven (or Paradise)， to join one’s ancestors， to be gathered to one’s fathers， to join the immortals. More examples are: agedsunset years， to be poorto be pinched， to have improper sexual intercourse with girls(especially maiden) to deflower; to degenerateto go astray; breastmilk bottles; catameniathe red flag; to be pregnantto be on the nest; the money of briberygrease; to bribeto grease somebody’s palm; handcuffsbracelets.

2.1.3 Personification

People’s names are often used to replace taboo words. For example， “Big Harry” refers to “heroin” because “Harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. In 19th century， it was called “ my aunt Jones”， “Mrs. Jones”， “Sir John”， “Sir Harry”， “the Henry”， while in 20th century， it was called “jakes”， “john” etc. But the latter color of personification becomes weak. The first letter can be written in small letter. People just use it as a common noun. In fact， they have lost the euphemistic function. There are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) My friend has come. 2) I have a visitor. 3) My cousins/country cousins have come. 4) My auntie/grandmother has come to stay. 5) Little sister is here. 6) I’ve got painters in. 7) the cardinal has come.

2.1.4. Analogy

In the euphemisms for occupation people often use analogy， which makes the humble name more elegant[5] ， For example， “chef” is a euphemism for “cook”. It is borrowed from French word “chef de cuisine”. “Beautician” refers to “hairdresser”; “garbologist” refers to “garbage collector”; “mortician” refers to “undertaker”. There also appeared some beautiful names for barbershop: hair salon， beauty parlour， and stylist parlour.

2.1.5. Ellipsis

That is to omit the offensive words while speaking， such as to be expecting (a baby)， to have (sexual) relations with somebody， to take precautions (against pregnancy)， to depart (from this world). Of course， such phrases should be put into a certain context， which can express the meaning of euphemisms.

2.1.6. Periphrasis

It is an expression of beating around the bush. Though it is a muddled acting， its aim is to avoid offending others， and to be more polite[6]. If someone asked a woman whether she was knitting a tiny garment， he meant that he wondered whether she was pregnant. Such way of speaking is humorous， sweet and agreeable， such as to dieto close one’s eyes， to expire， to breathe one’s last; to defecate and to urinateto wash one’s hands， to ease or relieve oneself， to do one’s business; to courtto go walking; to be pregnantto eat for two; lavatorywashroom， cloakroom; fartwind from behind; women’s underclothesunmentionables; trousersnether garments; ask you to go awaycall your carriage for you; to dismissto give somebody the sack; to be in prisonto live at the government's expense. Teachers often use this expression to avoid the students’ and their parents’ awkwardness. For example， laziness is called “needing ample supervision in order to work well”; “cheat” is described as “needing help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play”; “l(fā)ies” is called “showing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material”; “steal” is called “needing help in learning to respect the property rights of others”; “be a bully” refers to “having qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them democratically”; “dirty” is called “ be lack of proper health habits”.[7]

2.2. Semantic method

2.2.1. Synonym

For example， “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”，“defecate” replaces “shift” and “urine” replaces “piss” . And “mad” is replaced by “crazy”， “insane”， and “l(fā)unatic”. Such euphemism aims to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term.

2.2.2. Negation

Such euphemism uses the contrary term to express the same meaning， and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo and make people more understandable and comfortable. We could call stupid people unwise people. “A fat chance” means “a slim chance”and “find words” stands for “bad words”

2.2.3. Vague words and expressions

That is to make the harsher or offensive words more general. For example， if somebody has some mental problems， we can express it like this: His roof leaks a little; he has a screw loose/missing; he is not at home. There are other examples which use vague expressions， such as diseasetrouble， problem; to come across an unfortunate thingto have an accident; V. D. (venereal disease) secret disease; to live together illegallyto cohabit; intrauterine devicering; to rape somebodyto do violence to somebody; prostitutea woman of the streets， a woman of a certain class， a painted woman， a lady of the night girl; to entertain whorehouse visitorsto see company; whorehousehouse; a squintan obliquity of vision; a man of bad tastea man of doubtful taste; strikeindustrial action; the poorthe underprivileged， the disadvantaged; in debtin difficulties; buttocksbehind， bottom， backsides; homosexualqueer; sexual intercourseintimacy; to be killedto be put to sleep.

2.2.4. Loan words

Because from the period of Renaissance， Latin， Greek， and French are considered as cultured words[8]. People consider that those languages are more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. In the early 19th century， no matter in Britain or America， people used French word “enceinte” instead of English word “pregnant”. It is popular till now because the former is more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. English borrows words not only from French but also from other languages in many kinds of ways to create its own euphemism. For example， “l(fā)avatory” was borrowed from Latin word “l(fā)avatorium”， but it lost its meaning of euphemism because of long- time using. Therefore， people borrowed another euphemism from French “toilette” which was respelled into “toilet”， and it became the most popular euphemism referring to lavatory. French words “chemise” and “l(fā)ingerie” are euphemisms for “underwear” and “blouse” respectively. “sushi” was borrowed from Japanese “すし”. Its original meaning is a kind of Japanese food. People put it into a phrase “a little tongue sushi”， which means “tongue kissing”. The above words mostly belong to the common vocabulary. In addition， euphemisms also borrow some science and technological words and academic words that are cold， clinic and antiseptic. Such words are mainly from Latin and Greek. For example， Latin word “coitus” is a euphemism for “fuck”; Native words “shit” and “piss” are all dirty words， while Latin word “defecation” and Greek word “urination” are all accepted easily.

2.2.5. Understatement

That is to state some serious things in a temperate way in order to avoid being awkward and strident[9] . For example， “She was neither quite pretty nor quiet plain.” “Plain” is used instead of “ugly”; “My cousin Jimmy was a bit soft in the head.” “Soft in the head” means “mad”; “The boy used to take things without permission and has just been out of the rehabilitation home in the country.” (steal， detention home); the period of economic depressiona period of economic adjustment; money for briberykickback， commission; poor familieslow income families; falling behindless advanced; retarded childrenless able children; an ugly girla plain or homely girl; disabledphysically handicapped; to be illto look off color， to feel unwell or uncomfortable; treatmenthealth care; old ageadvanced in age.

2.3. The variety of pronunciation and spelling form

English is an alphabetic writing. The variation of phonetic form can avoid the original conception in a certain degree and achieve the purpose of euphemism. 1) Compounding: gezunda (goes under). 2) Acronym: DA (drug addict)， KG (know gambler)， B.O.T (balance of time)， J.D (juvenile delinquent)， P and Q (peace and quiet). 3) Back-formation: burgle (burgler) 4) chipping: vamp (vampire)， homo (homosexual)， gents (Gentlemen’s Room)， and ladies (Ladies Room)[10].

There is an interesting example: “l(fā)aboratory”， the original stress was on the first syllable. But it sounded similarly to “l(fā)avatory”. In order to avoid the unpleasant connection， the stress was moved to the second syllable. Such phenomenon is called Assonance. That is to make use of or to create words， which have the same or similar pronunciations with euphemistic words in order to achieve the purpose of euphemism. Therefore， in English there is a way of personification to express “catamenia”: The captain is at home. It is because “captain” is assonant with the medical science term “catamenia”. In oral English， “pee” is used to refer to “piss”， which has the same reason.

2.4. Grammar

That is to use past tense， negative sentence to express euphemism. For example， I can see by your face that you don’t think that was wise. The negative form means “thinking that was foolish”; “How do we feel today?” Using “we” instead of “you” shows the moderation and geniality. “I wanted to…” “I wondered…” often take the place of “I want to…” “I wonder…” Such expression is often used in oral English.[11]

3 The Social Influences of Euphemism

Euphemism is widely used in America and Britain. It has a long history. New euphemisms emerge in an endless stream. According to its applied functions， I’d like to pide it into three parts: Avoidance， Courtesy and Disguise. Through studying the three functions， we can understand the western society’s view on value and morality.

3.1. Avoidance

The earliest subject of Euphemism is religious[12]. The conception of taboo is deep-rooted in people’s mind， and it is not easy to remove. The appearance of taboo could date back to ancient Greek and ancient Roman. In human’s eyes God owns a super power that could control everything. Because fearing of the secret power， People use euphemism to avoid mentioning the guilty， unpleasant， rude or offensive words， which plays a role of purifying languages. For example， European Americans avoid speaking “Friday” and “13”. When the two things appear in the same day， it is an ill omen. And there is an example: there appeared an episode in 1972 when President Nicoson visited China. Chinese Premier Zhou went to Shanghai to receive American visitors. He found that Mr. and Mrs. Nicoson were arranged to live in Room15， Kissinger in Room14， but some state councilors in Room13? The Western people often take Number 13 as a taboo. After entering their apartments， Premier Zhou was aware that these Western visitors seemed unhappy. So he explained:” it is a pity that we have made a serious mistake. We ignored the special Western culture.” He continued，” There was an old Chinese fable that when a man was afraid of ghost， the more he thought， the more he felt terrified. At the time he felt no fear， he began to look for the ghost， but the ghost disappeared…Number 13 in Western culture looked like the Chinese ghost.” Hearing his story， the American visitors laughed heartily. At last they cooled down. From this example， we can realize the necessity of the cultural infiltration in language communication. So we must pay attention to the social influence of euphemism. This avoidance function is the first communication function of euphemisms[13]. Such function is often used in the following situations:

轉(zhuǎn)貼于 3.1.1. The euphemisms for God and devil

The Ten Commandments of Bible has prescribed， “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.” That’s why there are so many euphemisms. In oral English， using “God” causally would be considered blasphmous. If someone say “God damni it” he is treason and heresy， and would be punished [14] . Some of them adopt the semantic method， such as the Creator， the Maker， the Supreme (Being)， Holy One， the Almighty， the Eternal， Our Father， the Saviour， King of Kings， Lord of lords， the Light of the World， Sovereign of the Universe. Some of them adopt the phonetic method， such as Gad， Gosh， Golly， Godfrey etc. There are many euphemisms for “the devil”， such as old enemy， old Ned， Old Nick， Old One， Ole’un (Old Man)， Old Scratch， Old Serpent， the Old Boy etc. For example， “He was frightened as if Old Harry were before him.” In English they often use “heck” instead of “hell”. “hell” has other expressions: “the other place， a very uncomfortable place， the other way etc.” For example， “We were all going direct to Heaven; we were all going direct the other way.” [15]

3.1.2 The euphemisms for death

Euphemism is often caused in speaking of things that are painful and distressing to think about. Death is one of expressions. The euphemisms for death are a widely used item， especially when it concerns one’s own families and friends. It has a lot of expressions[16]. For example， if anything should happen to me (= when I die); to pass away/ on; to depart; to go to sleep; to be no longer with us; to be interred. “Death” also has some humorous expressions: “to pop off; to push up daisies; to cash in one’s chips; to kick the bucket ”. “Death” also has an intimate relationship with religion. There are many euphemisms from Bible， for example， to return to dust/ earth; to pay the debt of nature; to be called to God/ to answer the final summons; to go to heaven; to be at peace， to be asleep in the Arms of God; to yield up the ghost; to launch into eternity; to have one’s name inscribed in the Book of life etc. Some words， which concern “death”， also have euphemistic expressions. For example， “coffin” is called “casket”; “dead body” is called “earthly remains”; “funeral” is called “memorial service”; “graveyard” is called “memory garden”.

3.1.3. The euphemisms for illness， natural and man-made calamities

Most westerners avoid talking about some serious diseases. For instance， “terminally ill” is a euphemism for “cancer”; American and British newspapers often name “syphilis” as “social disease”; “l(fā)eprosy” is called “Hansen’s disease”; “constipation” is called “irregularity”. “tumour” is called “a growth”; “commit suicide” is called “self-deliverance or self-violence”. People often use initialing to avoid talk about some diseases directly， such as AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome); Big C (Cancer); VD (Venereal Disease) etc. “to die because of a crash” is called “old Newton took him”; “hara-kiri” is called “happy dispatch”; “an unnatural death” is called “to be blown across the creek”

3.1.4. The euphemisms for sex

Nearly all languages consider “sex” a taboo word. In the west， when children asked their parents where they came from， their parents often answered the baby was a visit from the stork. People can say “pregnant” instead of “expecting” or “in the family way”; “fart” is also written into the dictionary. You can say it directly instead of saying， “wind from behind” It is just because of the movement of “sex liberty” and “sex liberation”. People can have a freer talk about “sex” than Victorian age. On the contrary， some other new euphemisms for sex appeared one after another. “Sexual knowledge” is called “facts of life”; “pornographic movies” is called “adult films”; “cohabitation” has become very common in western society. It is also called a kind of marriage: “trial marriage” or “unmarried wife”. Nevertheless， with the sharp increase of the rate of porce， there appeared many euphemisms for porce: “to break up”， “to split up， and “matchruptcy” (a blending of “match” and “bankruptcy”). And the homosexuality would be called “Greek arts”， “queer”， “gay”. There is another interesting phrase “to go to Reno”. “Reno”， a small city in the west of Nevada， is famous for its easy and fast procedures of porce. So “to go to Reno” also becomes a euphemism for porce.

3.1.5. The euphemisms for birth

Contrary to the Chinese traditional opinion， in western countries， “being pregnant” and “having a baby” are not considered “a blessed event”. Australian English even call it “a blasted event”. In America， “to wear the apron high”， “to wear/have the belly high” are euphemisms for “to be pregnant”， while in Britain， “to wear the bustle wrong” is a euphemism for “to be pregnant”. In 19th century， a slim waist is the ideal figure for British women. Therefore， “to be pregnant” is also called “to be awkward”， “in a bad way/shape”; “to make a woman pregnant” is called “to spoil/ruin a woman’s shape”. Some one even called “to be pregnant” “to be caught” or “to be fallen”. Some vague expressions also show a kind of restless mood， such as: that way， in a certain/particular/delicate condition etc. The use of humor is another feature of euphemism for “being pregnant”. American people are likely to say “to have a watermelon on the vine”， or “to swallow a watermelon seed”. British people are likely to say “to have a bun in the oven” or “to have an Irish toothache” (to make fun of Irish people who are pregnant as commonly as having a toothache).

3.2. Courtesy

Another reason to use euphemism is that it avoids the harsh and direct word in a polite way， and makes the sentence sound more pleasant. To grasp the polite function of euphemism can help you build a good relationship with others. The polite functions are especially reflected in the occupations， or trades. It relate with Politeness Principle of Leech[17]. It is obvious that advertisement is aimed at helping businessmen propaganda their goods， for the sake of soliciting customs. As a pleasant way， using euphemisms in advertisements has become more and more widespread. Now， “secondhand store” has been replaced by “resale store”， “super”， “giant”， “special”， such words， have become more popular. Moreover， we can often see the same phenomenon about the expressions for classes of cabins. To defend passengers ’honor， “First Class” is changed to “Deluxe Class”， “Second Class” is to “First Class”， “Third Class” to “Business Class”， and “Economic Class” to “Tourist Class”. This function undoubtly plays an active role of improving the progress of society:

3.2.1. The euphemism for the office and trade

For example， “mental hospital or mental health center” is a euphemism for “madhouse”; “mortuary or funeral” is a euphemism of dead house. Some small companies or small enterprises like to use the word “industry”， such as hotel industry， tourist industry， garage industry， women’s beauty industry etc.

3.2.2. The euphemism for occupation

In order to promote the social status of the occupation， almost every humble occupation has a sweet-sounding name. There are mainly two forms:

1). Compound. That is to choose some sweet-sounding occupational names to make up compound or compound phrases. For example， today we can find many occupations in America and Britain named with “engineer”: sanitary (or sanitation) engineer; building (custodian， dwelling) engineer; automobile engineer; dry cleaning engineer， pipe engineer; heating engineer; packing engineer; sales engineer; housewifedomestic engineer; the person who is in charge of killing mice and cockroachesexterminating(extermination) engineer. There are some other common titles: automotive repairmanautomotive internist; garden workerlandscape architect; prison guardcorrectional officer; pest-killerpest control operator; butchermeat technologist. Some humble occupations have many euphemistic names at the same time. For example， people often call “hair stylist” “tonsorial artist”， while people call “female hairdresser” “woman surgeon”; “undertaker” also has many expressions: bereavement counselor， grief therapist， funeral director， funeral service practitioner. Besides “engineer” housewife also can be called “household executive”， “homemaker”， even “domestic manager”; “Prostitute” also has many euphemisms， such as pavement princess， working girl， streetwalker， call girl， business girl etc.

2). Derivation. That is to choose some Latin and Greek prefixes whose meanings refer to “a person”， such as “-(o) logist”. “mixologist” is a euphemism for “a bar’s waiter”; dustman for garbologist; female hairdresser for cosmetologist; undertaker for mortician; cobbler for shoetrician; locksmith for locktician. Some special occupational names have adopted two prefixes. For example cosmetologist and cosmetician both refer to “female hairdresser”. Moreover， Latin prefix “-arian” is originally used in religion， but now it is also used in the occupation， such as: bartarian， sanitarian. Another Latin prefix “-ian” is also used popularly， such as custodian (entrance guard or dustman). Some people even want to change the native prefix “-er” to the Latin prefix “-or” because they think the foreign prefix is more elegant and sweet-sounding， such as weldor， wild animal trainor.

3.2.3. The euphemisms for the aged and weight

The age， especially a woman’s age is regarded as a sensitive privacy. And most of the western people are afraid of getting old， so they call “old people” “senior citizens”. ”old age” and “senility” can easily cause the fear of the old people. Some euphemistic expressions take the place of them， such as “getting on (in years)， past one’s prime， feeling one’s age， second childhood， a distinguished gentleman， a grande dame， third age”. The old people become “an elder statesman” or “old age pensioner” or even use initialing “OAP”. They are not “old” but “l(fā)ong-lived”. Old people’s home， of course， is not an ideal place for old men to live in. There are many euphemistic expressions: a home for adults， a nursing home， a rest home， a private hospital， a convalescent hospital. The old people who live there are called euphemistically “a resident”.

In western country， it is very impolite if you talk about someone’s figure and weight without reservation. If someone is “fat”， “overweight” is often used to replace it. “weight-watchers” is also a euphemism for “fat people”. To female， “a fat girl” is called “a fuller figure or plump”; to male， “fat” is called “stout”; to child， it is called “chubby”. On the contrary， if someone is too thin， euphemism is also used. To male， it is called “l(fā)ean”， and to female， it is called “slim， slender， willowy or svelte”.

3.2.4. The euphemisms for poverty and unemployment

The topic of poverty and unemployment might cause some embarrassment， so people often use euphemism when their talks concern such things. For example， “dismissal” is often called “l(fā)ay off， ease out， get the walking ticket/pink slip”; “bankruptcy” is called “out of the game”; “penniless” is called “out of pocket， in reduced circumstances， badly off， needy etc.”; “the poor people” is called “the have-nots， the underprivileged， the disadvantaged”; even their houses also have a sweet-sounding name-“substandard housing”. The euphemism for unemployment has many expressions. Most of them are humorous， such as “between jobs”， “between shows”， “to be developing a new project”， “to receive a Mexican raise/ an Irish promotion” (to raise a promotion without raising the salary)， “to be self-employed”. In America “unemployed men” are called “claimants”， while， in Britain， they are called “to be on public assistance”. Of course， some euphemisms are pessimistic: The British unemployed men can take 50 percent off the ticket of a film and a drama， so they also can be called “the less fortunate”.

3.2.5. The euphemisms for excretion

All words concerning “excretion” except tears are considered taboo words. The euphemisms for “l(fā)avatory” have many ways of expressions， such as water closet， cloakroom， comfort station， toilet (which is popular in Britain)， restroom (which is generally used in America). In America， “convenience station” is written English， while “bathroom” is oral English. “John” is slang， while “poet’s corner” is a crack joke. In Britain， they use “Jakes” instead of “John”. They use “public comfort station” instead of “public convenience station”. Men’s lavatory is called “Gent’s， the John， the washroom”; Women’s lavatory is called “Ladies’， the powder room， powder one’s nose (Br.); powder one’s puff (Am.); Mrs. Jones”. There are also many ways to express “urination” and “defecation”， such as， to go to the bathroom/ restroom/ powder room， to do one’s business， to answer nature’s call. .

There are other expressions. For instance， I have to retire for a moment. / I would like to be excused. Interrogative sentences can also be used: Where is the restroom? Where can I wash my hands? Ladies can say， “I’d like to add some makeup.” in order to avoid the awkwardness.

3.3. Disguise

Opposite to the positive influences of euphemism， there are some different sayings about it. Some people condemn euphemisms as demoralizing because of its hypocrisy while others like Hilaire Belloc consider them a ‘psychological necessity”[18]. One of the most important reasons is that euphemism is used to conceal some scandalous behaviors and crimes. Therefore， euphemism can also bring about the negative influences， which are embodied in the following two aspects according to its concealing function:

3.3.1. The euphemisms for the requirements of politics and war.

Because of the requirements of politics and war， the British and American politicians used some euphemisms to conceal the internal truth， and cheat the public. For example， the “Water Gate” is called “scenario” [19]. Some American writers criticized that these euphemisms created from the “Water Gate” were demoralizing and hypocritical. “Time” even said directly， “These euphemisms all tell it like it isn’t.” [20] The person who steals the information is called “plumber”; The person who is against government is often called “dissidents”; American and British people name “riot” as “disturbance” or “disorder”; “strike” is called “walk-out， down tools， industrial action or industrial dispute”; “economic crises” is called “recession” or “depression”. In the aspect of military affair， “the number of the dead” is called “body count”; “aggression” is called “pre-emptive action” or “involvement”; “rout” is called “phased withdrawal”、“strategic withdrawal”、“l(fā)ight and scattered action” or “break off contact with enemy”. The euphemisms for “to kill” are often called “to take care of， to dispose of， to remove， to rub out， to puff out， to put away， to touch off etc.” “U.S. overseas military employment” is called “American presence”; “civilian casualties” is called “collateral damage”; “bombing and blasting” is called “softening up the resistance”. People seldom mention “nuclear weapons”， but “an anti-personnel weapon”. “Non-nuclear weapon” is called “a conventional weapon”. American media called their invasion to Haiti by their marines “an incident”， called the investigation of American airplanes in Russian territorial air space “an over flight”. We can see the concealing function of euphemisms becomes the needs of the struggle， the tool of cheating people.

3.3.2. The euphemisms for crime

Crime is also a very sensitive topic. The judge can say， “I hereby sentence you to five years in prison.” While the families and friends of the criminal are likely to use the euphemistic expression， such as “to send to the big house， to send up the river， to be living at the government’s expense.” “juvenile delinquents” is a euphemism for “young criminals”; “prison” is called “correctional center”; “burglary” is called “surreptitious entry”; “rape” is called “criminal assault”; “the officer’s act of stealing or embezzling” is called “They misuse public funds.” “Death penalty” is called “capital punishment”.

3.4. The countries’ names as euphemism

In English， there is another special euphemistic expression. That is to use other countries’ names instead of some harsher or more offensive words. The appearance of these euphemisms is mostly because of the historic and cultural reasons. For instance， because French had ruled Britain， British people like to make fun of the French. They called “syphilis” “the French disease”. “French letter” is a euphemism for “condom”; “abortive pill” is called “French lunar pill”; “pornographic novels/prints” is called “French novels (prints)”. It seems that the French does all the bad things. In 17th century， the war between Britain and Dutch also led to a lot of anti-Dutch words， including euphemisms. “Prostitute” is called “Dutch widow”; “commit suicide” is called “Dutch act/cure”; “Dutch courage” is an “artificial courage”; “Dutch cheer” is a euphemism for “l(fā)iquor”. It was said that the Dutch often drank some liquor to build up their courage. Besides French and Dutch， Britain also makes fun of other countries. “Condom” has other euphemistic expressions in terms of country’s name， such as Spanish letter， American letter， and Italian letter. “Abortive pill” is also called “Portuguese female pill”; “Russian roulette” is a euphemism for “to intend to commit suicide”; “Mexican raise. Irish promotion” means “to be dismissed”; “Egyptian physical training” means “to sleep at daytime”; “Chinese” is also included in this usage， and it refers to a kind of “heroin”. “Chinese white” is a euphemism for “spirited heroin”; “Chinese red” also refers to “heroin”. In a word， the British and the American relate a lot of offensive things with other countries’ names. That is why “exotic” has the meaning of “erotic”. “Exotic club” became the “striptease night club”; “exotic dancer” became the “go-go dancer”. Besides English， other western countries also have such euphemistic phenomena. In fact， it is Linguistic Chauvinism.

4. Conclusion

Euphemism appears with false appearance， and exerts a subtle influence on exposing the truth. That is to use the neutral or pleasant words to express some awkward or offensive contents. As to the English learners， we should not only pay attention to its application on appropriate occasions， but to its influences. Its active functions can coordinate the interpersonal relationships， release the contradictions and avoid the conflicts. The negative functions are to confound right and wrong， beautify the shameful behaviors and conceal the essence. Language itself has not the class character， but different people， political parties and countries can consider it a tool to serve for them. That is why someone named euphemisms as “comfortable words” or “cosmetic words”. In daily life， we should pay attention to the influences that the active and negative functions of euphemisms bring us， and keep the negative functions from corrupting our thoughts.

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篇6

［關(guān)鍵詞］微課程;大學(xué)英語(yǔ);設(shè)計(jì)與應(yīng)用

新技術(shù)的快速發(fā)展在教育領(lǐng)域引發(fā)了一系列的變革，大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課堂正需要打破傳統(tǒng)格局，建立一種新型的高效、便捷、輕松的教育和學(xué)習(xí)模式，而微課程的出現(xiàn)和發(fā)展為提高大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課堂效率提供了契機(jī)。本文通過(guò)對(duì)微課程的特點(diǎn)和優(yōu)勢(shì)進(jìn)行分析，探索了微課程在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的設(shè)計(jì)和應(yīng)用的新途徑。

一、大學(xué)英語(yǔ)的教學(xué)現(xiàn)狀

通常情況下，學(xué)生在高中畢業(yè)時(shí)已進(jìn)行了十多年的英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)，在詞匯和語(yǔ)法上有了相當(dāng)程度上的積累，對(duì)于基本的英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法和語(yǔ)言知識(shí)有了一定的掌握，已經(jīng)具備了基本的聽(tīng)說(shuō)讀寫(xiě)的能力，因此，當(dāng)學(xué)生進(jìn)入大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)，如果大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)模式依然延續(xù)高中圍繞英語(yǔ)詞匯和語(yǔ)法進(jìn)行的英語(yǔ)教學(xué)模式來(lái)展開(kāi)，將很難滿足當(dāng)今知識(shí)技術(shù)日益革新的社會(huì)對(duì)于大學(xué)畢業(yè)生的基本要求。同時(shí)，在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)實(shí)踐中發(fā)現(xiàn)，不同專業(yè)的大學(xué)生英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)的特點(diǎn)不同，大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課程需要考慮到不同專業(yè)學(xué)生的需求，這對(duì)授課教師的專業(yè)特長(zhǎng)和學(xué)術(shù)能力，以及教材的選擇方面提出了很大的挑戰(zhàn)。而此時(shí)，微課的出現(xiàn)以其本身的特點(diǎn)和優(yōu)勢(shì)，為創(chuàng)建大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的新模式提供了條件。

二、微課程教學(xué)模式的理論探索

1．微課程的定義

關(guān)于微課程的涵義，國(guó)內(nèi)外專家沒(méi)有一個(gè)確切統(tǒng)一的說(shuō)法。美國(guó)戴維•彭羅斯將微課程稱為“知識(shí)脈沖(KnowledgeBurst)”，它與相關(guān)討論與課后練習(xí)聯(lián)系起來(lái)，會(huì)取得與傳統(tǒng)長(zhǎng)時(shí)間授課模式相同的教學(xué)效果。總結(jié)國(guó)內(nèi)外觀點(diǎn)，微課程的定義是指按照新課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及教學(xué)實(shí)踐要求，以教學(xué)視頻為主要載體，錄制時(shí)長(zhǎng)大約5～10分鐘的有關(guān)教學(xué)重難點(diǎn)、考點(diǎn)、疑點(diǎn)等的簡(jiǎn)短視頻，反映教師在課堂教學(xué)過(guò)程中針對(duì)某個(gè)知識(shí)點(diǎn)或教學(xué)環(huán)節(jié)而開(kāi)展教與學(xué)活動(dòng)的各種教學(xué)資源有機(jī)組合。這種微視頻的反復(fù)使用，不但可以滿足大學(xué)生們個(gè)性化的需求，而且對(duì)教師們相互交流教學(xué)資源也大有裨益。

2．微課程的特點(diǎn)

作為一種新興的現(xiàn)代教學(xué)模式，微課程與日益更新的電子信息技術(shù)結(jié)合，實(shí)現(xiàn)了教育技術(shù)和媒體資源的共享，具有短小精悍，重點(diǎn)突出，針對(duì)性強(qiáng)，制作簡(jiǎn)單，使用靈活方便等特點(diǎn)。首先，微課程的時(shí)間較短，時(shí)長(zhǎng)約為5～10分鐘，下載保存方便，可以使學(xué)生利用零散的時(shí)間進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)，方便學(xué)生在注意力相對(duì)集中的時(shí)間內(nèi)高效率地學(xué)習(xí)。其次，微課程教學(xué)主題明確，內(nèi)容精細(xì)。微課通常是針對(duì)某個(gè)特定的知識(shí)點(diǎn)而展開(kāi)的，內(nèi)容精煉，針對(duì)性強(qiáng)，方便學(xué)生理解和掌握。第三，微課程的教學(xué)模式有助于學(xué)生自主學(xué)習(xí)能力的提高，增加師生間的互動(dòng)交流。學(xué)生可以不限時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)反復(fù)地使用微課視頻進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)，教師能夠準(zhǔn)確掌握學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的不足，針對(duì)性地進(jìn)行輔導(dǎo)，極大地提高了學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的成就感和自信心。此外，微課程還有制作簡(jiǎn)單、生動(dòng)有趣，以及方便教師交流等特點(diǎn)，這就使得微課教學(xué)迅速地風(fēng)靡全世界。

3．微課程在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)應(yīng)用中體現(xiàn)出的優(yōu)勢(shì)

傳統(tǒng)的英語(yǔ)教學(xué)模式主要是以教師講授為主，知識(shí)多且繁雜，學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)中處于被動(dòng)狀態(tài)，注意力很難集中。微課程這種全新的教學(xué)模式不僅可以讓師生共同參與，體驗(yàn)微課教學(xué)模式的優(yōu)勢(shì)，而且可以促使教師在教學(xué)過(guò)程中不斷完善教學(xué)方式。微課程在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中較之于傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)模式有很大的優(yōu)勢(shì)，具體體現(xiàn)在以下幾個(gè)方面:第一，教學(xué)內(nèi)容更加精煉，更有針對(duì)性。微課視頻的內(nèi)容都是教師根據(jù)整體的教學(xué)大綱進(jìn)行整理、歸納剔除了冗長(zhǎng)多余的內(nèi)容后濃縮的精華，具備很強(qiáng)的代表性，能夠在很大程度上提高學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的效率。第二，教師與學(xué)生的互動(dòng)性大大提升。借助微課平臺(tái)，學(xué)生可以隨時(shí)隨地就視頻中的難點(diǎn)和問(wèn)題與教師進(jìn)行線上的交流與互動(dòng)，方便教師及時(shí)解決學(xué)生的問(wèn)題，糾正口語(yǔ)上的錯(cuò)誤，這在一定程度上提高了學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)水平。第三，解除了傳統(tǒng)英語(yǔ)課堂對(duì)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的時(shí)空限制。傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)主要局限于課堂，微課教學(xué)模式使學(xué)習(xí)的地點(diǎn)不再受到限制，教師在完成微課視頻的制作后將視頻上傳到網(wǎng)絡(luò)，而學(xué)生則可以隨時(shí)隨地用電腦或手機(jī)學(xué)習(xí)到英語(yǔ)知識(shí)。

三、微課程教學(xué)模式在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的設(shè)計(jì)與應(yīng)用

1．微課教學(xué)視頻的收集與制作

在制作微視頻前，教師首先要先明確教學(xué)內(nèi)容和目標(biāo)，要結(jié)合學(xué)生實(shí)際的學(xué)習(xí)能力和水平圍繞教學(xué)主題來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)微課教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)方案。在確定主題后，要收集與主題相關(guān)的素材來(lái)完善教學(xué)方案，收集的素材可以包括圖片、視頻和影視資料等，然后將資源進(jìn)行整合歸納，盡可能更多地突出教學(xué)內(nèi)容的重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)，剔除冗長(zhǎng)多余的內(nèi)容，制作出少于20分鐘的視頻。教師在制作ppt時(shí)要注意設(shè)計(jì)簡(jiǎn)單明了，編排有序，片頭要呈現(xiàn)出微課主要信息，前幾十秒的時(shí)間做情景導(dǎo)入，最好伴有幾個(gè)啟發(fā)式的問(wèn)題以激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣，引起學(xué)生的思考。教師在制作視頻時(shí)，需將短小精悍的微課程視頻做到內(nèi)容精煉，生動(dòng)有趣，這樣才能達(dá)到最佳教學(xué)效果。微課視頻的時(shí)長(zhǎng)雖然短少，但不能因此而降低視頻的教學(xué)質(zhì)量。

2．課前視頻的

教師在編輯視頻時(shí)盡量使用比較常見(jiàn)的視頻格式，避免學(xué)生視頻無(wú)法接收的情況，也便于學(xué)生下載觀看。同時(shí)，還要添加一些與課程相關(guān)的重點(diǎn)批注和講解，以及視頻相關(guān)的課后作業(yè)等，布置的課后作業(yè)要圍繞著微課視頻的教學(xué)重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)，這樣有助于學(xué)生熟練地運(yùn)用微課程所學(xué)的內(nèi)容，同時(shí)又要帶有啟發(fā)性，能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的興趣。在微課程開(kāi)始之前，要指導(dǎo)學(xué)生按照微課程的教學(xué)任務(wù)進(jìn)行課前預(yù)習(xí)，只有這樣才能在課堂上達(dá)到良好的學(xué)習(xí)效果。

3．課堂的教學(xué)活動(dòng)

課堂教學(xué)中，學(xué)生不再是被動(dòng)地接受教學(xué)知識(shí)，而是主動(dòng)地參與到課程的學(xué)習(xí)中，有目的、有針對(duì)性地學(xué)習(xí)，微課程的優(yōu)勢(shì)就在于能夠利用圖片、影像、聲音、文本等多種方式來(lái)刺激學(xué)生視覺(jué)、聽(tīng)覺(jué)、觸覺(jué)、感覺(jué)等多種感官，將原本枯燥無(wú)趣的書(shū)本知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橐粋€(gè)生動(dòng)、形象的學(xué)習(xí)場(chǎng)景，從而達(dá)到激發(fā)學(xué)生潛能，迅速掌握課文內(nèi)容的效果。教師可利用微課教學(xué)資源，進(jìn)行“看圖說(shuō)話”或“看圖配音”等情景活動(dòng)，使課堂變得生動(dòng)有趣，提升學(xué)生在情景中靈活運(yùn)用語(yǔ)言的能力，增加學(xué)生對(duì)英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)的興趣，還要針對(duì)學(xué)生的特點(diǎn)，進(jìn)行個(gè)性化教學(xué)。教師可以在視頻之外補(bǔ)充板書(shū)、flash、word文檔等其他形式的教學(xué)方式，也可以留給學(xué)生適當(dāng)?shù)臅r(shí)間進(jìn)行小組討論，教師從旁輔助指導(dǎo)。教師可以針對(duì)微課平臺(tái)上學(xué)生的疑難問(wèn)題有針對(duì)性地講解，找到學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)中的薄弱之處，提升課堂教學(xué)的效率。

4．課后總結(jié)與互動(dòng)交流

在微課教學(xué)結(jié)束后，學(xué)生可以就課堂上沒(méi)有弄懂的問(wèn)題在微課程平臺(tái)上與教師進(jìn)行在線咨詢，不但可以更扎實(shí)地掌握課堂所學(xué)內(nèi)容，同時(shí)也提升了學(xué)生的反思和總結(jié)能力。而教師則要注意觀察學(xué)生微課任務(wù)的完成情況，以觀測(cè)學(xué)生在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)微課教學(xué)中的實(shí)際效果，當(dāng)然教師可以建立一個(gè)學(xué)生微課程視頻學(xué)習(xí)情況一覽表，并不定期地對(duì)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)視頻的情況進(jìn)行摸底考察，這樣可以有效地督促某些自律性差的學(xué)生，并將學(xué)習(xí)情況進(jìn)行分析總結(jié)，建立有針對(duì)性的微課教學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)情況數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)，及時(shí)有針對(duì)性地對(duì)這部分學(xué)生輔助指導(dǎo)，督促學(xué)生進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)方法的合理調(diào)整。教師也可通過(guò)調(diào)查問(wèn)卷等方式了解學(xué)生的需求，邀請(qǐng)學(xué)生也參與到微課程的設(shè)計(jì)當(dāng)中，在線對(duì)微課程的設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)表觀點(diǎn)和意見(jiàn)，教師可以根據(jù)學(xué)生課堂表現(xiàn)、聽(tīng)課效果反饋和學(xué)生意見(jiàn)進(jìn)行總結(jié)反思，修改微課程的設(shè)計(jì)方案，使微課程的學(xué)習(xí)更加貼近學(xué)生的需要，從而達(dá)到事半功倍的效果。

綜上所述，在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課堂中使用微課教學(xué)模式是可行的，這一教學(xué)模式可以有效提高該課程的教學(xué)效率，彌補(bǔ)傳統(tǒng)課堂教學(xué)的不足之處。這使學(xué)生成為學(xué)習(xí)的主體，調(diào)動(dòng)了學(xué)生的主觀能動(dòng)性，激發(fā)了學(xué)生對(duì)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的學(xué)習(xí)興趣，并推動(dòng)個(gè)性化學(xué)習(xí)真正應(yīng)用于教學(xué)實(shí)踐。微課程教學(xué)模式在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的設(shè)計(jì)與應(yīng)用具有很強(qiáng)的實(shí)踐性和先進(jìn)性，雖然在我國(guó)還處于初步探索階段，但是隨著對(duì)微課程教學(xué)的深入探討和研究，必將促進(jìn)我國(guó)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)水平更上新臺(tái)階。

作者:馬文佳 單位:佳木斯大學(xué)

［參考文獻(xiàn)］

［1］李季．基于微課程教學(xué)模式下的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)策略研究［J］．海外英語(yǔ)，2015(12):49－53．

［2］閆易乾．微課程在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的應(yīng)用［J］．教改探索，2015(8):68．

［3］歐陽(yáng)志群．微課對(duì)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)改革的啟示［J］．高教學(xué)刊，2015(15):85－88．

［4］仇慧．基于翻轉(zhuǎn)課堂模式下的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的研究———以中國(guó)文化課程為例［D］．東北石油大學(xué)，2014．

篇7

During the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 B.C.), Duke Xian of the State of Jin Killed the crown prince Sheng because he had heard slanders1 about Sheng and believed them. He also sent his men to arrest Chong Er, Shen Sheng and believed them. He also sent his men to arrest Chonh Er, Shen Sheng's brother. Hearing the news, Chong Er escaped from the state of Jin, remaining a fugitive2 for more than ten years.

After innumerable hardships, Chong Er arrived at the State of Chu at last. King Cheng of the State of Chu treated him with high respect as he would have treated the ruler of a state, believing that he would have a vright fuure.

One day, King Cheng of the State of Chu gave a banquet in honoudr of Chong Er. Suddenly, amid the harmonious3 atmosphere of drinking and talking, King Cheng of the State of Chu asked Chong Er. "How will you repay me when you return to the State of Jin and become its ruler one day?" After thinking for a moment, Chong Er said, "You have plenty of beauties and attendants as well as jewelry4 and silk cloth, and the state of Chu abounds5 in rare brides and animals. What treasure can the State of Jin boast having to present to your majesty6?" King Cheng of the State of Chu said, "You are too modest. Nevertheless, you still have to show your gratitude7 to me in one way or another, I presume?" Smiling, Chong Er answered, "If I should be fortunate enouge to return to the State of Jin and become its ruler, the State of Jin would be friendly to the State of Chu. If, one day, there should be a war between the two states, I would definitely order my troops to retreat three SHE (one SHE is equivalent to thirty LI. The LI is a Chinese unit of length equivalent to 1/2 kilometre. And, therefore, three SHE is about thirty miles.) as a condition for peace. If, under that condition, you were still not reconciled, I would have to fight with you."

Four years later, as might be expected, Chong Er returned to the State of Jin and became its ruler. He was none other than Duke Wen of the State of Jin famous in ancient Chinese history. Ruled by him, the State of Jin became increasingly powerful.

In the year 533 B.C., the Chu troops and the Jin troops confronted each other in a battle. Faithful to his promise, Duke Wen of the State of Jin ordered his troops to retreat about thirty miles. After retreating, the Jin troops were stationed at Chengpu. Seeing that the Jin troops were retreating, the Chu troops thought that the enemy troops were afraid, and began chasing them. Taking advantage of the Chu troops' arrogance8 and their talking the Jin troops lightly, the Jin troops concentrated their forces and inflicted9 a crushing defeat on the Chu troops, thus winning the victory of the battle of Chengpu.

This set phrase, "retreating about thirty miles as a condition for peace," is derived10 from the Chapter "The Twenty-second Year of Duke Xi" in ZuoZhuan, the famous commentary by Zuo Qiuming on The spring and Autumn Annals. The idea of this set phrase is to give way to somebody in order to avoid a conflict.

春秋時(shí)候，晉獻(xiàn)公聽(tīng)信讒言，殺了太子申生，又派人捉拿申生的弟弟重耳。重耳聞?dòng)?，逃出了晉國(guó)，在外流忘十幾年。

經(jīng)過(guò)千幸萬(wàn)苦,重耳來(lái)到楚國(guó)。楚成王認(rèn)為重耳日后必有大作為，就以國(guó)群之禮相迎，待他如上賓。

一天，楚王設(shè)宴招待重耳，兩人飲灑敘話，氣氛十分融洽。忽然楚王問(wèn)重耳：“你若有一天回晉國(guó)當(dāng)上國(guó)君，該怎么報(bào)答我呢？”重耳略一思索說(shuō)：“美女待從、珍寶絲綢，大王您有的是，珍禽羽毛，象牙獸皮，更是楚地的盛產(chǎn)，晉國(guó)哪有什么珍奇物品獻(xiàn)給大王呢？”楚王說(shuō)：“公子過(guò)謙了。話雖然這么說(shuō)，可總該對(duì)我有所表示吧？”重耳笑笑回答道：“要是托您的福。果真能回國(guó)當(dāng)政的話，我愿與貴國(guó)友好。假如有一天，晉楚國(guó)之間發(fā)生戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，我一定命令軍隊(duì)先退避三舍（一舍等于三十里），如果還不能得到您的原諒，我再與您交戰(zhàn)。”

四年后，重耳真的回到晉國(guó)當(dāng)了國(guó)君，就是歷史上有名的晉文公。晉國(guó)在他的治理下日益強(qiáng)大。

篇8

關(guān)鍵詞：高職英語(yǔ)；微課資源；建設(shè)；應(yīng)用

一、微課在高職英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的作用

1.促進(jìn)英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)的改革

教育界倡導(dǎo)“以教師為主導(dǎo)、以學(xué)生為主體”的教學(xué)模式，在很大程度上并沒(méi)有得到徹底的貫徹和實(shí)施，課堂教學(xué)還是以英語(yǔ)教師講授為主，學(xué)生被動(dòng)接收知識(shí)，學(xué)生的語(yǔ)言能力沒(méi)有得到更大程度的提高。微課的開(kāi)發(fā)和利用有效改變了以往的教學(xué)模式，課前學(xué)生觀看相關(guān)教學(xué)視頻，課上英語(yǔ)教師組織各種活動(dòng)進(jìn)行練習(xí)和答疑，實(shí)現(xiàn)了課內(nèi)外教學(xué)活動(dòng)的翻轉(zhuǎn)。這種教學(xué)模式提高了學(xué)生的自主學(xué)習(xí)能力，真正實(shí)現(xiàn)了個(gè)性化教學(xué)，促進(jìn)了師生之間的良性互動(dòng)。

2.促進(jìn)英語(yǔ)教師教學(xué)能力的提升

微課的制作要求英語(yǔ)教師不僅要認(rèn)真鉆研教學(xué)內(nèi)容，精心設(shè)計(jì)教學(xué)過(guò)程，還要大量查閱相關(guān)資料，與同行進(jìn)行深入的談?wù)摻涣?，學(xué)習(xí)運(yùn)用現(xiàn)代化的教學(xué)手段，才能制作出高質(zhì)量的微課精品。在使用微課的過(guò)程中，英語(yǔ)教師結(jié)合學(xué)生的實(shí)際情況認(rèn)真總結(jié)優(yōu)點(diǎn)，反思不足，不斷提高自身的微課制作水平及應(yīng)用效果。這一過(guò)程極大地促進(jìn)了英語(yǔ)教師的專業(yè)化成長(zhǎng)和教學(xué)能力的不斷提升。

3.促進(jìn)信息技術(shù)與英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的融合

時(shí)代在改變，信息新技術(shù)的不斷涌現(xiàn)為教育的發(fā)展提供了廣闊的空間和無(wú)限的可能。微課在教學(xué)中的運(yùn)用，促進(jìn)英語(yǔ)教師不斷學(xué)習(xí)新的技術(shù)，從而有效開(kāi)展教學(xué)和交流活動(dòng)，使學(xué)生的課外自主學(xué)習(xí)成為可能，實(shí)現(xiàn)了師生之間課內(nèi)外的實(shí)時(shí)溝通。微課的運(yùn)用改變了以往的課堂教學(xué)模式，促進(jìn)了信息技術(shù)與教育的深度融合。

二、高職英語(yǔ)微課資源建設(shè)

1.高校英語(yǔ)微課比賽

為鼓勵(lì)英語(yǔ)教師積極參與微課的制作和運(yùn)用，高等教育出版社已舉辦兩屆中國(guó)外語(yǔ)微課大賽。目前，第二屆外語(yǔ)微課大賽正處在復(fù)賽評(píng)審階段。中國(guó)外語(yǔ)微課大賽在外語(yǔ)界掀起了一股學(xué)習(xí)微課、制作微課的潮流，為全國(guó)外語(yǔ)教師之間的相互交流、相互學(xué)習(xí)提供了一個(gè)有效的平臺(tái)。比賽當(dāng)中涌現(xiàn)出一些外語(yǔ)微課精品，值得外語(yǔ)教師借鑒學(xué)習(xí)并在教學(xué)中運(yùn)用；但從整體上看，英語(yǔ)教師為比賽而制作微課的痕跡比較明顯，微課作品存在缺乏系統(tǒng)性的規(guī)劃、實(shí)用性低、低水平的重復(fù)等缺點(diǎn)。

2.高職英語(yǔ)微課資源的特點(diǎn)

（1）實(shí)用性。高職英語(yǔ)微課資源注重實(shí)用性。高職學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)水平參差不齊，英語(yǔ)教師根據(jù)學(xué)生的不同學(xué)習(xí)需求、不同英語(yǔ)水平制作不同內(nèi)容的微課，滿足學(xué)生的個(gè)性化英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)需求。學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)微課的過(guò)程中，能夠真正有所收獲、切實(shí)提高自身的英語(yǔ)水平，這樣才能真正發(fā)揮出英語(yǔ)微課的作用，從而有效避免微課只是停留在制作的層面上。

（2）精品化。高職英語(yǔ)微課資源注重精品化。首先，選題精當(dāng)，英語(yǔ)教師選擇學(xué)生感興趣、對(duì)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)有意義的話題；其次，內(nèi)容精細(xì)，教師通過(guò)完整合理的教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)把一個(gè)知識(shí)點(diǎn)或技能點(diǎn)講精講透，讓學(xué)生在學(xué)完微課以后，真正掌握所學(xué)內(nèi)容；再次，制作精良，英語(yǔ)教師通過(guò)各種軟件的綜合運(yùn)用，最終呈現(xiàn)一個(gè)圖像聲音清晰、搭配合理、美觀大方的教學(xué)視頻，從而讓學(xué)生愿意學(xué)、樂(lè)于學(xué)。

（3）系統(tǒng)化。高職英語(yǔ)微課資源要系統(tǒng)化。高職院校鼓勵(lì)英語(yǔ)教師積極投身微課資源建設(shè)，充分發(fā)揮每位教師的優(yōu)勢(shì)和特長(zhǎng)，制作不同專題、不同系列的微課，最終使得微課資源形成完整的體系。高職院?？梢耘c其他院校積極開(kāi)展合作，共同開(kāi)發(fā)高職英語(yǔ)微課資源，從而保障英語(yǔ)微課的質(zhì)量，以便能夠推出精品。

3.建立高職英語(yǔ)微課資源平臺(tái)

為促進(jìn)微課在高職英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的廣泛運(yùn)用，高職院校積極構(gòu)建高職英語(yǔ)微課資源平臺(tái)。微課平臺(tái)要提供資源的、下載功能，提供教學(xué)的互動(dòng)功能，為生生、師生提供在線學(xué)習(xí)討論區(qū)，成為一個(gè)集資源分享、課程學(xué)習(xí)和線上討論為一體的教學(xué)平臺(tái)。高職院校也可以結(jié)合自身的實(shí)際情況，充分發(fā)揮網(wǎng)絡(luò)教學(xué)平臺(tái)的各種功能，實(shí)現(xiàn)英語(yǔ)微課資源的共享。

三、高職英語(yǔ)微課資源應(yīng)用

1.高職英語(yǔ)教師構(gòu)建“網(wǎng)絡(luò)+課堂”混合式教學(xué)模式

高職英語(yǔ)教師要積極利用、充分發(fā)揮微課資源平臺(tái)在高職英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的作用。高職英語(yǔ)微課旨在服務(wù)于任務(wù)教學(xué)法和翻轉(zhuǎn)課堂的新理念，創(chuàng)新教學(xué)模式，給課堂注入新活力。高職英語(yǔ)教師可結(jié)合具體的教學(xué)內(nèi)容，給學(xué)生布置具體的任務(wù)，讓學(xué)生課前觀看微課視頻；課上，教師精心組織各種教學(xué)活動(dòng)，讓學(xué)生有機(jī)會(huì)體驗(yàn)、參與、交流、討論，從而實(shí)現(xiàn)課內(nèi)外教學(xué)活動(dòng)的翻轉(zhuǎn)。通過(guò)高職英語(yǔ)微課資源平臺(tái)，學(xué)生隨時(shí)與英語(yǔ)教師討論交流，使師生、生生的實(shí)時(shí)交流成為可能。

2.學(xué)生提高自主學(xué)習(xí)能力

高職學(xué)生不斷提高自身的信息素養(yǎng)，學(xué)會(huì)有效利用現(xiàn)代化的教學(xué)手段和豐富的英語(yǔ)教學(xué)資源為英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)服務(wù)。課前，根據(jù)英語(yǔ)教師布置的具體任務(wù)，積極觀看微（下轉(zhuǎn)第120頁(yè)）（上接第102頁(yè)）課教學(xué)視頻、積極主動(dòng)學(xué)習(xí)新知識(shí)；課堂上，積極參加各種課堂活動(dòng)，讓自己充分融入英語(yǔ)課堂，真正變成英語(yǔ)課堂的主人。高職學(xué)生需要不斷提高自主學(xué)習(xí)能力，為以后的繼續(xù)學(xué)習(xí)、終身學(xué)習(xí)奠定良好的基礎(chǔ)。

3.學(xué)校的鼓勵(lì)支持

學(xué)校鼓勵(lì)英語(yǔ)教師使用英語(yǔ)微課資源平臺(tái)進(jìn)行英語(yǔ)教學(xué)，邀請(qǐng)英語(yǔ)微課使用效果好的教師進(jìn)行講座，分享他們成功的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，使得成功的經(jīng)驗(yàn)在更大范圍內(nèi)得以運(yùn)用。學(xué)校在學(xué)生中積極開(kāi)展微課滿意度的調(diào)查，對(duì)學(xué)生認(rèn)可度較高的英語(yǔ)微課和教師進(jìn)行物質(zhì)或者榮譽(yù)的獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)，營(yíng)造良好的教學(xué)氛圍，讓更多的英語(yǔ)教師積極投入到建設(shè)微課、使用微課的過(guò)程中來(lái)。高職院校與其他院校共同開(kāi)發(fā)、共同使用英語(yǔ)微課資源，提高高職英語(yǔ)微課資源的使用率，充分發(fā)揮其在高職英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的作用。

高職英語(yǔ)微課資源建設(shè)是一個(gè)龐大的、系統(tǒng)的工程，需要學(xué)校、廣大英語(yǔ)教師付出相當(dāng)多的時(shí)間和精力才能不斷完善、不斷提高。在英語(yǔ)微課資源運(yùn)用的過(guò)程中，英語(yǔ)教師不斷研究、探索，才能找到一條合適的道路。盡管如此，微課資源結(jié)合任務(wù)教學(xué)法和翻轉(zhuǎn)課堂在高職英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中的運(yùn)用仍是高職英語(yǔ)教學(xué)前進(jìn)的方向。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1]宋楚平，李少芹，張紅芳. MOOC背景下行業(yè)英語(yǔ)微課資源建設(shè)探討[J].職業(yè)技術(shù)教育，2015（2）：20.

[2]楊雯娟.高職英語(yǔ)微課建設(shè)及應(yīng)用策略研究[J].科教導(dǎo)刊，2015（4）：106.

篇9

關(guān)鍵詞： 英語(yǔ)課堂 活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì) 活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)例子

隨著英語(yǔ)在我國(guó)甚乎全球的日益廣泛使用，英語(yǔ)教育無(wú)疑已成為我國(guó)教育的重點(diǎn)之一，小至牙牙學(xué)語(yǔ)的小朋友，大至在校接受高等教育的學(xué)生、在職工作人員甚至于退休人員，都成為英語(yǔ)培訓(xùn)及教育的對(duì)象。然而，傳統(tǒng)的學(xué)校教育方式使英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)成為眾多學(xué)習(xí)者心理的痛。以教師為中心、說(shuō)教式為主要教學(xué)方法、應(yīng)試為主要目標(biāo)的英語(yǔ)教育方式忽略了英語(yǔ)作為一種語(yǔ)言的溝通功能性，因此正受到社會(huì)一步步的淘汰。對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的方式提出了更高的要求。身處英語(yǔ)培訓(xùn)行業(yè)的我更加深刻了解到英語(yǔ)課堂活動(dòng)多樣性、趣味性，以及以學(xué)生為中心的重要性。因此，根據(jù)多年的英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)及英語(yǔ)教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn)，針對(duì)英語(yǔ)課堂上英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)的設(shè)計(jì)做出梳理及總結(jié)。此文將從英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的原則及活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的方式兩個(gè)方面進(jìn)行剖析，并舉具體的活動(dòng)例子深化說(shuō)明。

一、英語(yǔ)課堂上英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的原則

1.活動(dòng)主體及客體的匹配

活動(dòng)的主體即學(xué)生，客體就是活動(dòng)的內(nèi)容及形式。我們?cè)谠O(shè)計(jì)活動(dòng)的內(nèi)容及形式時(shí)，必須首先考慮學(xué)生的年齡、知識(shí)水平、需求、認(rèn)知能力等各方面因素，進(jìn)行主體及客體間的匹配。沒(méi)有調(diào)研過(guò)主體的各方面因素，無(wú)論活動(dòng)內(nèi)容設(shè)計(jì)得如何豐富、整體思路如何完美，都不能稱之為成功的活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，因此此原則為基礎(chǔ)原則。

2.課堂上英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)的適時(shí)性

適時(shí)性包括課堂上英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)合適的頻率及每個(gè)活動(dòng)合適的時(shí)長(zhǎng)。課堂上的英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)間往往是有限的。一般來(lái)說(shuō)為45分鐘—90分鐘為一個(gè)課堂學(xué)習(xí)單位，因此在設(shè)計(jì)活動(dòng)的時(shí)候必須考慮到其所需時(shí)間及適合的頻率。課堂上活動(dòng)頻率過(guò)密或時(shí)間過(guò)長(zhǎng)都會(huì)影響學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的有效性。

3.根據(jù)活動(dòng)目的進(jìn)行必要的知識(shí)補(bǔ)充

英語(yǔ)課堂上活動(dòng)的目的大致可以分為以下幾類：通過(guò)活動(dòng)了解新的學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容或方法、通過(guò)活動(dòng)實(shí)踐并練習(xí)已學(xué)過(guò)的內(nèi)容及方法、通過(guò)活動(dòng)對(duì)已有的學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容及方法進(jìn)行溫習(xí)并鞏固。無(wú)論是哪種目標(biāo)，在進(jìn)行活動(dòng)之前或之后，都需要有一些相關(guān)知識(shí)的補(bǔ)充及輸入，或是背景知識(shí)介紹，或是學(xué)習(xí)方法的概括和總結(jié)，或一些協(xié)助學(xué)生進(jìn)行活動(dòng)的補(bǔ)充材料。針對(duì)比較程度較低的學(xué)生，這些補(bǔ)充材料最好以書(shū)面的形式加以呈現(xiàn)。

二、英語(yǔ)課堂上英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)的設(shè)計(jì)——例子

為了更好闡述英語(yǔ)課堂上英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)的設(shè)計(jì)，我列舉兩個(gè)實(shí)例，并從目的、對(duì)象、時(shí)間、具體方式等方面向大家介紹，并對(duì)活動(dòng)的效果進(jìn)行總結(jié)及分析。

活動(dòng)一：

語(yǔ)言目標(biāo)：if真實(shí)條件句的學(xué)習(xí)

目的：讓學(xué)生掌握if真實(shí)條件句的句式，并加以應(yīng)用

對(duì)象：初級(jí)水平學(xué)生

人數(shù)：10人或以上

時(shí)間：約15分鐘

步驟：

1.向?qū)W生介紹if真實(shí)條件句之句式：if+一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)，主句+一般將來(lái)時(shí)。

2.教師舉完整例子，如If it doesn’t rain tomorrow，I will go shopping with my mom.

3.教師舉半完整例子，并讓學(xué)生填充，如：

If my friend comes see me tomorrow，I will ·搖·搖·搖 ·搖·搖·搖·搖.

The teacher will be happy if ·搖·搖·搖·搖·搖 ·搖·搖.

4.學(xué)生舉完整例子，并邀請(qǐng)若干學(xué)生口頭或在黑板上寫(xiě)下句子。

5.If真實(shí)條件句接龍：教師確定學(xué)生已基本掌握句式用法后，將學(xué)生分成小組，5~10人每組，進(jìn)行句子接龍，前一個(gè)同學(xué)的后半個(gè)句子必須是下一個(gè)同學(xué)的上半個(gè)句子，具體如下。

學(xué)生一：If it doesn’t rain tomorrow，I will go shopping.

學(xué)生二：I will go shopping tomorrow if my best friend goes with me.

學(xué)生三：If my best friend goes with me，I won’t bring any money ...

如此類推，只要有一個(gè)同學(xué)犯錯(cuò)，如時(shí)態(tài)錯(cuò)誤或單詞發(fā)音不準(zhǔn)確或所接句子不完整，就必須重新開(kāi)始，但時(shí)間不重新計(jì)算。最快完成的小組勝利。

三、活動(dòng)實(shí)況回顧

此活動(dòng)整體來(lái)說(shuō)是較為成功的，學(xué)生基本掌握了if真實(shí)條件句的句式及用法，并能夠針對(duì)自身的情況進(jìn)行運(yùn)用，與此同時(shí)，接龍游戲的設(shè)計(jì)大大活躍了課堂氣氛，使絕大部分的同學(xué)積極參與其中，用游戲及競(jìng)賽的方式增強(qiáng)了語(yǔ)法學(xué)習(xí)的趣味性。盡管如此，本次活動(dòng)還有美中不足的地方，由于舉行活動(dòng)的班級(jí)人數(shù)較多，約35人，因此整個(gè)活動(dòng)耗時(shí)超過(guò)了原定的15分鐘，耗時(shí)大約25分鐘。由于人數(shù)過(guò)多，進(jìn)行到活動(dòng)后半部分的時(shí)候，許多學(xué)生已經(jīng)難以集中精力聆聽(tīng)其他學(xué)生的句子，課堂上出現(xiàn)稍微混亂的局面。

在進(jìn)行此活動(dòng)時(shí)，人數(shù)的控制是其中一個(gè)難點(diǎn)，過(guò)少學(xué)生難以進(jìn)行競(jìng)賽，過(guò)多的學(xué)生難以控制時(shí)間及局面，所以最好針對(duì)學(xué)生的數(shù)量對(duì)活動(dòng)進(jìn)行調(diào)整，并對(duì)整體耗時(shí)進(jìn)行監(jiān)控。這就體現(xiàn)了活動(dòng)主體及客體的匹配及課堂上英語(yǔ)活動(dòng)的適時(shí)性原則。

活動(dòng)二：

活動(dòng)名稱：Mix and Match

針對(duì)課程：閱讀

目的：增加學(xué)生閱讀的參與性及自主性，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生概括及描述能力，增強(qiáng)邏輯思考能力；與此同時(shí)提高學(xué)生口語(yǔ)概括能力。

對(duì)象：中/高水平學(xué)生

人數(shù)：6~8人或以上

時(shí)間：30~45分鐘（取決于閱讀材料的難易程度及學(xué)生的參與度）

篇10

英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)是學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)和掌握英語(yǔ)的主要途徑，其優(yōu)劣程度直接關(guān)系到學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)效果的好壞，從而影響著英語(yǔ)教學(xué)目的的實(shí)現(xiàn)。因此，為了達(dá)到教學(xué)的最優(yōu)化效果，必須要求教師事先精心設(shè)計(jì)好課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)，體現(xiàn)出教學(xué)的科學(xué)性、藝術(shù)性與實(shí)用性。

1.英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)是順利完成課堂教學(xué)目的，提高課堂教學(xué)效果的需要?！胺彩骂A(yù)則立，不預(yù)則廢”教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)是整個(gè)教學(xué)工作中不可或缺的重要環(huán)節(jié)。教師要依據(jù)教學(xué)大綱的要求、教材的具體內(nèi)容、語(yǔ)言的學(xué)習(xí)規(guī)律、學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)水平和已達(dá)到的語(yǔ)言能力程度，對(duì)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)深入構(gòu)思、精心設(shè)計(jì)、整體把握、合理布局，研究和掌握科學(xué)的教學(xué)原則，使用諸如教育學(xué)、心理學(xué)等理論，始終貫穿于英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)的每個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)中，并正確合理采用具體實(shí)施方法，比如小組活動(dòng)(Group Work 或Pair Work)、話題的選擇(Topic Choice)、表演(Acting)等，來(lái)提高學(xué)生在單位時(shí)間內(nèi)聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、寫(xiě)的功效，獲得理想的教學(xué)效果。

2．英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)是英語(yǔ)學(xué)科教學(xué)特點(diǎn)的需要。英語(yǔ)科不同于其他學(xué)科，英語(yǔ)學(xué)科的一個(gè)顯著特點(diǎn)就是實(shí)踐性強(qiáng)。只有通過(guò)大量的活動(dòng)和訓(xùn)練，才能很好地掌握和運(yùn)用，正如雜技演員，他們純熟的技藝都是苦練的結(jié)果。英語(yǔ)課的學(xué)習(xí)也是一樣，必須有足夠的練習(xí)，學(xué)生才能逐步領(lǐng)會(huì)所學(xué)的知識(shí)和規(guī)則，并能逐漸自如地運(yùn)用。其實(shí)踐性的特點(diǎn)，決定了它的課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)形式的靈活多樣，也只有通過(guò)豐富的課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)，才能使學(xué)生掌握聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、寫(xiě)的基本技能，從而熟練應(yīng)用英語(yǔ)進(jìn)行交際。而這些都有賴于設(shè)計(jì)好的教學(xué)活動(dòng)，需要教師傾注心血，在條理性、趣味性、邏輯性和科學(xué)性方面下功夫。

3．通過(guò)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，不斷提高英語(yǔ)教師自身的教學(xué)能力的需要。英語(yǔ)課作為中學(xué)教育的基礎(chǔ)課程，有其不同一般的特殊性。素質(zhì)教育觀下的英語(yǔ)教學(xué)，對(duì)教師提出了更高的要求。其教學(xué)特征在于：多元的課堂教學(xué)目標(biāo)；適度“開(kāi)放”的教學(xué)內(nèi)容；“任務(wù)式”的學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng)；多樣的組織形式和變化的角色關(guān)系；互動(dòng)式的課堂話語(yǔ)；分層次的學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)和要求；和諧均衡的教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)置；健康愉悅的情感氛圍。為了達(dá)到上述要求，在課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)中，教師就需要查閱資料，博覽群書(shū)，猶如蜜蜂采花釀蜜，不斷充實(shí)豐富自己，最后厚積薄發(fā)，落實(shí)到設(shè)計(jì)方案中，這樣上課時(shí)才能有備無(wú)患，得心應(yīng)手，才能為提高課堂教學(xué)質(zhì)量提供了現(xiàn)實(shí)可能性，最終體現(xiàn)素質(zhì)教育所提倡的注重教學(xué)實(shí)質(zhì)、淡化教學(xué)形式的根本要求。

二、英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的依據(jù)

1．課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，首先應(yīng)該依據(jù)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)大綱。大綱是中學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)和改革的綱領(lǐng)性文件，它提出了英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的目的、任務(wù)、范圍、體系、教學(xué)進(jìn)度和對(duì)教學(xué)方法的基本要求，是我們進(jìn)行教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)、教學(xué)改革、教學(xué)評(píng)估、考試命題的依據(jù)，是衡量我們教學(xué)工作的準(zhǔn)繩，課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)必須全面、系統(tǒng)、透徹地掌握大綱的實(shí)質(zhì)性內(nèi)容，并貫徹到整個(gè)教學(xué)活動(dòng)中去。因此，我們要認(rèn)真鉆研教材，明確教學(xué)目的、任務(wù)和要求。根據(jù)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)特點(diǎn)，在設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)要把學(xué)生置于特定的英語(yǔ)環(huán)境之中，通過(guò)大量、反復(fù)的聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、寫(xiě)訓(xùn)練，通過(guò)一定的語(yǔ)言實(shí)際活動(dòng)，立足于現(xiàn)實(shí)，重視情感心靈交流，靈活運(yùn)用，大膽創(chuàng)新，銳意改革，淘汰那些傳統(tǒng)式的教學(xué)方法，想方設(shè)法地把枯燥無(wú)味的語(yǔ)言材料轉(zhuǎn)變成生動(dòng)活潑的活動(dòng)內(nèi)容。

2．英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，應(yīng)依據(jù)教材內(nèi)容。課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的過(guò)程，就是教師對(duì)教材內(nèi)容熟悉、理解的過(guò)程，就是對(duì)教學(xué)目的、教學(xué)原則和教學(xué)方法理解分析和準(zhǔn)備實(shí)施的過(guò)程，所以我們應(yīng)努力做到吃透教材內(nèi)容，理解和掌握教材的內(nèi)在聯(lián)系，組織好教材，安排好課時(shí)，抓住教材中的關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)，突出重點(diǎn)，突破難點(diǎn)，設(shè)計(jì)好課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)。

3．課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，應(yīng)依據(jù)本校本班的學(xué)生特點(diǎn)。英語(yǔ)教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)不僅是設(shè)計(jì)教材，設(shè)計(jì)方法，更重要的是設(shè)計(jì)如何調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性，如何挖掘?qū)W生的內(nèi)在潛力。作為英語(yǔ)教師，對(duì)自己學(xué)生的知識(shí)水平、接受能力、學(xué)習(xí)態(tài)度、興趣愛(ài)好、個(gè)性特征、學(xué)習(xí)基礎(chǔ)等都要有全面的了解，以便根據(jù)大多數(shù)學(xué)生的實(shí)際情況，確定教學(xué)的起點(diǎn)、難度、深度和廣度，根據(jù)學(xué)生個(gè)性特征和個(gè)別差異，因人而異地進(jìn)行教學(xué)和輔導(dǎo)，同時(shí)，在設(shè)計(jì)新的教學(xué)活動(dòng)時(shí)，還要重視信息的反饋，使之更適應(yīng)學(xué)生知識(shí)水平和接受能力，使教師的主觀愿望與學(xué)生的客觀要求趨于統(tǒng)一。

三、英語(yǔ)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的模式實(shí)例

1．語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)呈現(xiàn)的模式。即向?qū)W生呈現(xiàn)新的語(yǔ)言項(xiàng)目，激活學(xué)生接受新語(yǔ)言信息的認(rèn)知狀態(tài)。下面以牛津初中英語(yǔ)7AUnit 4 中的Welcome to the unit為例。首先我們需要分析教材。本單元的功能項(xiàng)目是“食物”(Food)，涉及的話題有：談?wù)撟钕矚g的食物、飲料、水果；進(jìn)而可以了解中外飲食習(xí)慣和文化方面的差異，為之后Reading中的有關(guān)Food and lifestyles 內(nèi)容做好準(zhǔn)備。需要用到的語(yǔ)言項(xiàng)目有：有關(guān)食物、飲料等詞匯；可數(shù)、不可數(shù)名詞量的表達(dá)；句型“What’s your favourite food/drink? What would you like? How many... are there?”等。本單元的教學(xué)目的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生掌握與飲食有關(guān)的語(yǔ)言基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)和基本技能，并能運(yùn)用語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行交際活動(dòng)的能力。因此可以先向?qū)W生提問(wèn)：“What things do we eat/drink?”并用實(shí)物或圖片啟發(fā)引導(dǎo)學(xué)生說(shuō)出已學(xué)過(guò)的食物、飲料名詞，同時(shí)引出新詞并熟悉其音、形、義。教師此時(shí)應(yīng)注意有意識(shí)地分出可數(shù)和不可數(shù)名詞，為下一步做鋪墊。然后用話題：“What’s your favourite food/drink?”激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣和交際動(dòng)機(jī)，進(jìn)行信息交流，從而熟練掌握有關(guān)詞匯。在此基礎(chǔ)上，再用“What would you like for breakfast/lunch/supper?”來(lái)引出量的表達(dá)。這是學(xué)生的難點(diǎn)，必須通過(guò)足夠使學(xué)生明了意思的實(shí)物或圖片以及大量有真實(shí)意義的操練來(lái)訓(xùn)練學(xué)生準(zhǔn)確流利地學(xué)會(huì)表達(dá)，包括口頭、筆頭表達(dá)。最后還可用“How many...”句型來(lái)強(qiáng)化這項(xiàng)技能。

2．情景對(duì)話教學(xué)的模式。這是學(xué)生對(duì)新語(yǔ)言項(xiàng)目的信息進(jìn)行加工的過(guò)程，也就是練習(xí)。有了第一步的扎實(shí)的語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)，我們就可以通過(guò)教學(xué)課本中的幾個(gè)情景對(duì)話，把新的語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)置于一個(gè)具體的情境中，顯示語(yǔ)言功能，從中學(xué)會(huì)運(yùn)用。